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Research Writing Packet

This packet contains: 1. My notes on research writing competencies 2. A sample argumentative research paper in MLA style from Diana Hacker 3. A discussion of avoiding plagiarism from the Purdue On-Line Writing Lab

Notes on Research Writing Competencies
ENGL 150

Overall Purpose of Research • Completing coursework vs. scholarship community • Negotiating the discourse community of academia Documentation • Purposes o To identify what information comes from a source o To identify the source information comes from o To avoid plagiarism • Format o Bibliography o In-Text Citations • Tools o MLA Book o Purdue OWL o Software o Web Tools

Researching • Purposes o To understand a topic o To inform your writing o To develop insight . o Not limited to justifying existing ideas • Skills for Secondary Research o Searching o Sorting o Evaluating Credibility • Searching o Library databases o Library resources o The internet o Gateway sources o Sideways searching o Primary sources • Evaluation o What the source says (logic, use of evidence) o Who wrote it o Why was it published o When was it published o Where was it published

• Organization
o Note taking o Outlining o High and low tech o Good messy vs. bad messy Argumentation • Critical Thinking • Types of Evidence • Types of Appeals • Logic & Fallacies • Dealing with Numbers • Audience & Discourse Community • Anticipating Objections • Agonistic vs. Irenic Rhetoric Composition • Establishing Credibility • Outlining • Drafting • Revision • Editing o Academic Style o Style vs. Correctness • Research Writing Mechanics o Quoting vs. paraphrase/summary o Quote mechanics • Signal phrases • Punctuation • Documentation • Block quotes • Omissions & additions • Preserving Context • Indirect quotes o Paraphrase/Summary mechanics • Signal phrases • Avoiding inadvertent plagiarism • Preserving meaning & context • Documentation Avoiding Plagiarism • In the Western world: o Academic scholarship is done to increase understanding of a certain topic for the sake of knowledge itself.

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o Scholars publish research with the understanding that others will build on it o Part of that understanding includes giving credit for others’ work. Plagiarism is the uncredited use of someone else’s work. o This “work” can include • Presenting someone else’s research or unique ideas as one’s own • Presenting someone else’s writing or phrasing as one’s own o Unintentional plagiarism is still plagiarism To avoid plagiarism, both these requirements must be met: o All use of external sources needs to be documented according to the requirements of the situation o All use of exact words from another source needs to be marked as a quotation

Notes on terminology: • “MLA” is a format for documenting research and formatting academic manuscripts published by the Modern Language Association. It is correct to say ‘Tm writing a paper in MLA style,” and not correct to say ‘Tm writing an MLA paper.” • MLA “style” refers to the style of formatting the documentation (in-text citations and Works Cited page) or the page layout (title, spacing, page numbers, etc.) and not to the choice of words and phrases you use. The word “research” can mean both gathering information (“researching a topic”) and the finished product (“publishing my research”). A “source” is a discrete piece of information, such as an article. A “resource” is something you use to find sources, such as a library database. It is not correct to say “My paper has four resources listed on the Works Cited page.” A “Works Cited page” is MLA’s term for the bibliography. All formal research papers have bibliographies. Only MLA-style papers have a Works Cited page. (APA-style papers have a References page, for example.) A “formal” research paper means that it follows an existing form, such as MLA format, for presenting research. When paraphrasing, the instruction is often to write a passage of research “in your own words.” It would probably be more accurate to say “in different words,” or “in a rephrased manner that matches the style of the rest of your paper which should be your version of an academic voice,” which you may or may not consider to be “your” words. In the context of writing academic research papers, “good” writing refers only to writing of those kinds of papers. There are many kinds of writing, and “good” writing changes depending on the context.

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MLA Research Paper (Daly)

Daly 1 Angela Daly Professor Chavez English 101 14 March XXXX A Call to Action: Regulate Use of Cell Phones on the Road
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When a cell phone goes off in a classroom or at a concert, we are irritated, but at Least our Lives are not endangered. When we are on the road, however, irresponsible cell phone users are more than irritating: They are putting our Lives at risk. Many of us have witnessed drivers so distracted by dialing and chatting that they resemble drunk drivers, weaving between Lanes, for example, or nearly running down pedestrians in crosswalks. A number of bills to regulate use of cell phones on the road have been introduced in state Legislatures, and the time has come to push for their passage. Regulation is needed because drivers using phones are seriously impaired and because Laws on negligent and reckless driving are not sufficient to punish offenders. No one can deny that cell phones have caused traffic deaths and injuries. Cell phones were implicated in three fatal accidents in November 1999 alone. Early in November, two-year-old Morgan Pena was killed by a driver distracted by his cell phone. Morgan’s mother, Patti Pena, reports that the driver “ran a stop sign at 45 mph, broadsided my vehicle and killed Morgan as she sat in her car seat.” A week Later, corrections officer Shannon Smith, who was guarding prisoners by the side of the road, was killed by a woman distracted by a phone call (Besthoff). On Thanksgiving weekend

Opening sentences catch readers’ attention.

Thesis asserts Angela Daly’s main point.

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Daly uses a clear topic sentence.

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Signal phrase names the author of the quotation to follow. l No page number is available for this Web source. Author’s’ name is given in parentheses; no page number is available.

Marginal annotations indicate MLA-style formatting and effective writing. Source: Diana Hacker (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2006).
This paper has been updated to follow the style guidelines in the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th ed. (2009) .

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Daly 2 that same month, John and Carole Hall were killed when a Naval Academy midshipman crashed into their parked car. The driver said in court that when he looked up from the cell phone he was dialing, he was three feet from the car and had no time to stop (Stockwell B.8).

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Page number is given when available. I Clear topic sentences, like this one, are usecl tl1roughout the paper.

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Expert testimony, public opinion, and even cartoons

suggest that driving while phoning is dangerous. Frances Bents, an expert on the relation between cell phones and accidents, estimates that between 450 and 1,000 crashes a year have some connection to cell phone use (Layton C9). In a survey published by Farmers Insurance Group, 87% of those polled said that cell phones affect a driver’s ability, and 40% reported having close calls with drivers distracted by phones. Many cartoons have depicted the very real dangers of driving while distracted (see fig. 1). Scientific research confirms the dangers of using phones while on the road. In 1997 an important study appeared in the

Summary and long quotation are introduced with a signal phrase naming the authors.

New England Journal of Medicine. The authors, Donald Redelmeier
and Robert Tibshirani, studied 699 volunteers who made their cell phone bills available in order to confirm the times when they had placed calls. The participants agreed to report any nonfatal collision in which they were involved. By comparing the time of a collision with the phone records, the researchers assessed the dangers of driving while phoning. The results are unsettling: We found that using a cellular telephone was associated with a risk of having a motor vehicle collision that was about about four times as high as

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Long quotation is set off from the text; quotation marks are omitted.

Source: Diana Hacker (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2006).

Daly 3

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Fig. 1. A cartoon shows the dangers of using cell phones and other devices while driving (Lowe A21). that among the same drivers when they were not using their cellular telephones. This relative risk is similar to the hazard associated with driving with a blood alcohol level at the legal limit. (456) The news media often exaggerated the latter claim (“similar to” is not “equal to”); nonetheless, the comparison with drunk driving suggests the extent to which cell phone use while driving can impair judgment. A 1998 study focused on Oklahoma, one of the few states to keep records on fatal accidents involving cell phones. Using police records, John M. Violanti of the Rochester Institute of Technology investigated the relation between traffic fatalities in Oklahoma and
Illustration has figure number, caption, and source information.

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Summary begins with a signal phrase naming the author and ends with page numbers in parentheses.

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Source : Diana Hacker (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2006).

Daly 4 the use or presence of a cell phone. He found a ninefold increase in the risk of fatality if a phone was being used and a doubled risk simply when a phone was present in a vehicle (522-23). The latter statistic is interesting, for it suggests that those who carry phones in their cars may tend to be more negligent (or prone to distractions of all kinds) than those who do not.
Daly counters an opposing argument.

Some groups have argued that state traffic laws make legislation regulating cell phone use unnecessary. Sadly, this is not true. Laws on traffic safety vary from state to state, and drivers distracted by cell phones can get off with light punishment even when they cause fatal accidents. For example, although the midshipman mentioned earlier was charged with vehicular manslaughter for the deaths of John and Carole Hall, the judge was unable to issue a verdict of guilty. Under Maryland law, he could only find the defendant guilty of negligent driving and impose a

Facts are documented with intext citations: authors ‘ names and page numbers (if available) in parentheses.

$500 fine (Layton Cl). Such a light sentence is not unusual. The driver who killed Morgan Pena in Pennsylvania received two tickets and a $50 fine-and retained his driving privileges (Pena). In Georgia, a young woman distracted by her phone ran down and killed a two-year-old; her sentence was ninety days in boot camp and five hundred hours of community service (Ippolito Jl). The

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families of the victims are understandably distressed by laws that Lead to such light sentences. When certain kinds of driver behavior are shown to be especially dangerous, we wisely draft special laws making them illegal and imposing specific punishments. Running red lights, failing to stop for a school bus, and drunk driving are obvious examples;

Daly uses an analogy to justify passing a special law.

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Daly 5 phoning in a moving vehicle should be no exception . Unlike more general Laws covering negligent driving, specific Laws Leave Little ambiguity for Law officers and for judges and juries imposing punishments. Such Laws have another important benefit: They Leave no ambiguity for drivers. Currently, drivers can tease themselves into thinking they are using their car phones responsibly because the definition of “negligent driving” is vague. As of December 2000, twenty countries were restricting use of cell phones in moving vehicles (Sundeen 8). In the United States, it is highly unlikely that Legislation could be passed on the national Level, since traffic safety is considered a state and Local issue. To date, only a few counties and towns have passed traffic Laws restricting cell phone use. For example, in Suffolk County, New York, it is illegal for drivers to use a handheld phone for anything but an emergency call while on the road (Haughney A8). The first town to restrict use of handheld phones was Brooklyn, Ohio (Layton C9). Brooklyn, the first community in the country to pass a seat belt Law, has once again shown its concern for traffic safety. Laws passed by counties and towns have had some effect, but it makes more sense to Legislate at the state Level. Local Laws are not Likely to have the impact of state Laws, and keeping track of a wide variety of Local ordinances is confusing for drivers. Even a spokesperson for Verizon Wireless has said that statewide bans are preferable to a “crazy patchwork quilt of ordinances” (qtd. in Haughney A8). Unfortunately, although a number of bills have been introduced in state Legislatures, as of early 2001 no state Law
Transition helps readers move from one paragraph to

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Daly explains wily US laws need to be passed on tl1e state level.

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the next.

Daly cites an indirect source: words quoted in another source.

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Source: Diana Hacker (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2006).

Daly 6 seriously restricting use of the phones had passed-Largely because of effective Lobbying from the wireless industry.
Daly counters a claim made by some opponents.

Despite the claims of some Lobbyists, tough Laws regulating phone use can make our roads safer. In Japan, for example, accidents Linked to cell phones fell by 75% just a month after the country prohibited using a handheld phone while driving (Haughne@ Research suggests and common sense tells us that it is not possible to drive an automobile at high speeds, dial numbers, and carry on conversations without significant risks. When such behavior is regulated, obviously our roads will be safer. Because of mounting public awareness of the dangers of drivers distracted by phones, state Legislators must begin to take the problem seriously. “It’s definitely an issue that is gaining steam

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j For variety Daly places a signal ph rase after a brief quotation.

around the country,” says Matt Sundeen of the National Conference of State Legislatures (qtd. in Layton C9) . Lon Anderson of the American Automobile Association agrees: “There is momentum building,” he says, to pass Laws (qtd. in Layton C9). The time has come for states to adopt Legislation restricting the use of cell phones in moving vehicles.

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witll Daly’s stand on the issue.

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Source : Diana Hacker (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin ‘s, 2006) .

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Daly 7 Works Cited
Heading is centered. List is alphabetized by authors’ last names (or by title when a work has no author).

Besthoff, Len. “Cell Phone Use Increases Risk of Accidents, but Users Willing to Take the Risk.” WRAL.com. Capitol Broadcasting, 9 Nov. 1999. Web. 12 Jan. 2001. Farmers Insurance Group. “New Survey Shows Drivers Have Had ‘Close Calls’ with Cell Phone Users.” Farmers. Farmers Insurance Group, 8 May 2000. Web. 12 Jan. 2001. Haughney, Christine. “Taking Phones out of Drivers’ Hands.”

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First line of eacl1 entry is at the left margin; extra lines are indented 1/2′ ‘.
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Washington Post 5 Nov. 2000: AS. Print.
Ippolito, Milo. “Driver’s Sentence Not Justice, Mom Says.” Atlanta

Journal-Constitution 25 Sept. 1999: Jl . elibrary Curriculum.
Web. 12 Jan. 2001. Layton, Lyndsey. “Legislators Aiming to Disconnect Motorists.”

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Washington Post 10 Dec. 2000: Cl+. Print.
Lowe, Chan. Cartoon. Washington Post 22 July 2000: A21. Print. Pena, Patricia N. “Patti Pena’s Letter to Car Talk.” Cartalk.com. Dewey, Cheetham, and Howe, n.d. Web. 10 Jan. 2001. Redelmeier, Donald A., and Robert J. Tibshirani. “Association between Cellular-Telephone Calls and Motor Vehicle Collisions.”

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Abbreviation “n.d.” indicates that the online source lias no update date.

New England Journal of Medicine 336.7 (1997): 453-58. Print.
Stockwell, Jamie. “Phone Use Faulted in Collision.” Washington

Post 6 Dec. 2000: Bl+. Print.
Sundeen, Matt. “Cell Phones and Highway Safety: 2000 State Legislative Update.” National Conference of State Legislatures. Natl. Conf. of State Legislatures, Dec. 2000. Web. 27 Feb. 2001. Violanti, John M. “Cellular Phones and Fatal Traffic Collisions.”

Accident Analysis and Prevention 30.4 (1998): 519-24. Print.

Source: Diana Hacker (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2006).

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Purdue OWL

Welcome to the Purdue OWL
This page is brought to you by the 0 WL at Purdue (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/). When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice at bottom.

Contributors:Karl Stolley, Allen Brizee, Joshua M. Paiz. Summary:
There are few intellectual offenses more serious than plagiarism in academic and professional contexts. This resource offers advice on how to avoid plagiarism in your work.

Overview and Contradictions
Research-based writing in American institutions, both educational and corporate, is filled with rules that writers, particularly beginners, aren’t aware of or don’t know how to follow . Many of these rules have to do with research and proper citation. Gaining familiarity with these rules, however, is critically important, as inadvertent mistakes can lead to charges of plagiarism, which is the uncredited use (both intentional and unintentional) of somebody else’s words or ideas. While some rhetorical traditions may not insist so heavily on documenting sources of words, ideas, images, sounds, etc., American academic rhetorical tradition does. A charge of plagiarism can have severe consequences, including expulsion from a university or loss of a job, not to mention a writer’s loss of credibility and professional standing. This resource, which does not reflect any official university policy, is designed to help you develop strategies for knowing how to avoid accidental plagiarism. For instructors seeking a key statement on definitions and avoidance on plagiarism, see Defining and A voiding Plagiarism: The WP A Statement on Best Practices. (Purdue University students will want to make sure that they are familiar with Purdue’s official academic dishonesty policy as well as any additional policies that their instructors have implemented.)

Intellectual challenges in American academic writing
There are some intellectual challenges that all students are faced with when writing. Sometimes these challenges can almost seem like contradictions, particularly when addressing them within a single paper. For example, American teachers often instruct students to:

Develop a topic based on what has already been said and written
https://ow l.e nglish .purdue .edu/owl/ow lprint/589/

BUT Write something new and original
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Rely on experts’ and authorities’ opuuons

BUT Improve upon and/or disagree with those same opinions

Give credit to previous researchers

BUT Make your own significant contribution

Improve your English to fit into a discourse community by building upon what you hear and read

BUT Use your own words and your own voice

For instructor and student documents on preventing plagiarism, please visit these resources on the Purdue OWL. Contributors:Karl Stolley, Allen Brizee, Joshua M. Paiz. Summary: There are few intellectual offenses more serious than plagiarism in academic and professional contexts. This resource offers advice on how to avoid plagiarism in your work.

Is It Plagiarism Yet?
There are some actions that can almost unquestionably be labeled plagiarism. Some of these include buying, stealing, or borrowing a paper (including, of course, copying an entire paper or article from the Web); hiring someone to write your paper for you; and copying large sections of text from a source without quotation marks or proper citation. But then there are actions that are usually in more of a gray area. Some of these include using the words of a source too closely when paraphrasing (where quotation marks should have been used) or building on someone’s ideas without citing their spoken or written work. Sometimes teachers suspecting students of plagiarism will consider the students’ intent, and whether it appeared the student was deliberately trying to make ideas of others appear to be his or her own. However, other teachers and administrators may not distinguish between deliberate and accidental plagiarism. So let’s look at some strategies for avoiding even suspicion of plagiarism in the first place

When do we give credit?
The key to avoiding plagiarism is to make sure you give credit where it is due. This may be credit for something somebody said, wrote, emailed, drew, or implied. Many professional organizations, including the Modem Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (AP A), have lengthy guidelines for citing sources. However, students are often so busy trying to learn the rules ofMLA format and style or APA format and style that they sometimes forget exactly what needs to be credited. Here, then, is a brief

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list of what needs to be credited or documented:

• Words or ideas presented in a magazine, book, newspaper, song, TV program, movie, Web page, computer program, letter, advertisement, or any other medium • Information you gain through interviewing or conversing with another person, face to face, over the phone, or in writing • When you copy the exact words or a unique phrase • When you reprint any diagrams, illustrations, charts, pictures, or other visual materials • When you reuse or repost any electronically-available media, including images, audio, video, or other media Bottom line, document any words, ideas, or other productions that originate somewhere outside of you. There are, of course, certain things that do not need documentation or credit, including: • Writing your own lived experiences, your own observations and insights, your own thoughts, and your own conclusions about a subject • When you are writing up your own results obtained through lab or field experiments • When you use your own artwork, digital photographs, video, audio, etc. • When you are using “common knowledge,” things like folklore, common sense observations, myths, urban legends, and historical events (but not historical documents) • When you are using generally-accepted facts, e.g., pollution is bad for the environment, including facts that are accepted within particular discourse communities, e.g., in the field of composition studies, “writing is a process” is a generally-accepted fact.
Deciding if something is “common knowledge”
Generally speaking, you can regard something as common knowledge if you find the same information undocumented in at least five credible sources. Additionally, it might be common knowledge if you think the information you’re presenting is something your readers will already know, or something that a person could easily find in general reference sources. But when in doubt, cite; if the citation turns out to be unnecessary, your teacher or editor will tell you.

Contributors:Karl Stolley, Allen Brizee, Joshua M. Paiz. Summary:

There are few intellectual offenses more serious than plagiarism in academic and professional contexts. This resource offers advice on how to avoid plagiarism in your work.

Safe Practices
Most students, of course, don’t intend to plagiarize. In fact, most realize that citing sources actually builds their credibility for an audience and even helps writers to better grasp information relevant to a topic or course of study. Mistakes in citation and crediting can still happen, so here are certain practices that can help you not only avoid plagiarism, but even improve the efficiency and organization of your research and writing.

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Best Practices for Research and Drafting
Reading and note-taking

• In your notes, always mark someone else’s words with a big Q, for quote, or use big quotation marks • Indicate in your notes which ideas are taken from sources with a big S, and which are your own insights (ME) • When information comes from sources, record relevant documentation in your notes (book and article titles; URLs on the Web)
Interviewing and conversing

• Take lots of thorough notes; if you have any of your own thoughts as you’re interviewing, mark them clearly • If your subject will allow you to record the conversation or interview (and you have proper clearance to do so through an Institutional Review Board, or IRB), place your recording device in an optimal location between you and the speaker so you can hear clearly when you review the recordings. Test your equipment, and bring plenty of backup batteries and media. • If you’re interviewing via email, retain copies of the interview subject’s emails as well as the ones you send in reply • Make any additional, clarifying notes immediately after the interview has concluded
Writing paraphrases or summaries

• Use a statement that credits the source somewhere in the paraphrase or summary, e.g., According to Jonathan Kozol, …). • If you’re having trouble summarizing, try writing your paraphrase or summary of a text without looking at the original, relying only on your memory and notes • Check your paraphrase or summary against the original text; correct any errors in content accuracy, and be sure to use quotation marks to set off any exact phrases from the original text • Check your paraphrase or summary against sentence and paragraph structure, as copying those is also considered plagiarism. • Put quotation marks around any unique words or phrases that you cannot or do not want to change: e.g., “savage inequalities” exist throughout our educational system (Kozol).
Writing direct quotations

• Keep the source author’s name in the same sentence as the quote • Mark the quote with quotation marks, or set it off from your text in its own block, per the style guide your paper follows • Quote no more material than is necessary; if a short phrase from a source will suffice, don’t quote an entire paragraph • To shorten quotes by removing extra information, use ellipsis points( … ) to indicate omitted text, keeping in mind that: o In longer quotes where you have omitted a sentence in between other complete
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sentences, maintain terminal puncutation in between the ellipses. Example: “None of the national reports I saw made even passing references to inequality or segregation…. Booker T. Washington was cited with increasing frequency, Du Bois never, and Martin Luther King only with cautious selectivity.” (Kozol 3). • To give context to a quote or otherwise add wording to it, place added words in brackets, ( D); be careful not to editorialize or make any additions that skew the original meaning of the quote-do that in your main text, e.g., o OK: Kozol claims there are “savage inequalities” in our educational system, which is obvious. o WRONG: Kozol claims there are “[obvious] savage inequalities” in our educational system. • Use quotes that will have the most rhetorical, argumentative impact in your paper; too many direct quotes from sources may weaken your credibility, as though you have nothing to say yourself, and will certainly interfere with your style
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Writing about another’s ideas

• Note the name of the idea’s originator in the sentence or throughout a paragraph about the idea • Use parenthetical citations, footnotes, or endnotes to refer readers to additional sources about the idea, as necessary • Be sure to use quotation marks around key phrases or words that the idea’s originator used to describe the idea
Maintaining drafts of your paper

Sometimes innocent, hard-working students are accused of plagiarism because a dishonest student steals their work. This can happen in all kinds of ways, from a roommate copying files off of your computer, to someone finding files· on a disk or on a pen drive left in a computer lab. Here are some practices to keep your own intellectual property safe: • Do not save your paper in the same file over and over again; use a numbering system and the Save As … function; E.g., you might have research_paperOO 1.doc, research_paper002.doc, research_paper003 .doc as you progress. Do the same thing for any HTl\llL files you’re writing for the Web. Having multiple draft versions may help prove that the work is yours (assuming you are being ethical in how you cite ideas in your work!). • Maintain copies of your drafts in numerous media, and different secure locations when possible; don’t just rely on your hard drive, pen drive, or the cloud. • Password-protect your computer; if you have to leave a computer lab for a quick bathroom break, hold down the Windows key and L to lock your computer without logging out. • Password-protect your files; this is possible in all sorts of programs, from Adobe Acrobat to Microsoft word Gust be sure not to forget the password!).

Revising, proofreading, and finalizing your paper
• Proofread and cross-check with your notes and sources to make sure that anything

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following ways: o In-text citation, otherwise known as parenthetical citation o Footnotes or endnotes o Bibliography, References, or Works Cited pages o Quotation marks around short quotes; longer quotes set off by themselves, ~s prescribed by a research and citation style guide o Indirect quotations: citing a source that cites another source o If you have any questions about citation, ask your instructor well in advance of your paper’s due date, so if you have to make any adjustments to your citations, you have the time to do them well
Works Cited

Kozol, Jonathan. Savage Inequalities: Children in America’s Schools. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1992. Print.
Contributors:Karl Stolley, Allen Brizee, Joshua M. Paiz. Summary:

There are few intellectual offenses more serious than plagiarism in academic and professional contexts. This resource offers advice on how to avoid plagiarism in your work. .

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