Kriticos/Criticus

Critical Reading:
Active engagement with the text in order to uncover significant details and meanings (through previewing, annotating, highlighting/marking the text, and reading recursively). Evaluate ideas. Weigh evidence. Ask questions. Analyze the text in terms of the author’s main arguments, sufficiency of the evidence provided to support their argument, and the overall plausibility of the subject matter. Don’t read for information only-look for ways of thinking.

Critical Writing:
Relies on careful analysis (when you analyze, you examine information for the purposes of explanation and interpretation). Critical writing also relies on subject knowledge and accuracy. Calls for same process as critical thinking: consider all viewpoints and employ a genuine sensitivity to alternative perspectives.

Critical Thinking:
The word critical comes to us from the Greek kriticos and Latin criticus, meaning being able to discern or separate (to come to know, recognize, and understand).
One definition of critical thinking is that it is discerning or discriminating thought characterized by careful analysis and judgment.
Another definition of critical thinking is that it suggests a disposition to think clearly in order to be fair and accurate.
*It is also a set of intellectual skills and psychological habits that you need to solve problems, discover truths, and clearly communicate via multiple perspectives and rational discourse.

WHY BOTHER:
Why read/why bother to analyze anything?

How we read and write about texts is also practical because it engages you in the kinds of problem solving important in a variety of fields, from philosophy to science and technology and business. It requires you to read situations, shape questions, and analyze details, and evaluate competing points of view. It encourages a suppleness of mind that is helpful in any discipline or work because you have become more aware of life’s possibilities. Instead of retreating to the way things have always been done, you will also be able to bring freshness and creativity to your work.

You have an obligation to be informed: learn to sift through information, to heft it, to value it, to question it, to ask questions. You’ll be in better control of your life and your fortunes. Learn the difference between news and interpretation (subjective vs objective, use of fallacies).

How? Develop an open mind and listen attentively to the views of others, and to refuse to be swayed/manipulated by propaganda or other fraudulent methods. Dig for info, realize there is not one meaning but an abundance of meanings. Evaluation vs blind acceptance. Ask serious probing questions, look for causes underneath the event. Actively search for new info and ideas.

Dispense with worldviews. We tend to hold or share the same views and assumptions as our families, friends, and culture – this is called a worldview. Without even being aware of it, we may harbor prejudices that cloud our thinking, and restrict fair judgment. Many of these attitudes grow from contexts that we take for granted – our parents, friends, religious or ethnic backgrounds, or even from the time, place, or circumstances in which we live. Worldviews are a social construction, not the gospel truth.

Argumentation Theory
The whole of Argumentation theory dates back to the Greek and Roman tradition of resolving arguments with truth and reasoning. According to Aristotle, rhetoric is the “art of using language to good effect, to prove, to convince, to persuade.” This was the beginning/foundation of democracy and a free society. We study the great philosophers because they are our companions in our own philosophical conversations.

Included in classical rhetoric and argumentative theory is to present as many strong premises (reasons) in support of your position as necessary. These premises in turn have to be elaborated, explained, and defended with as much specific detail, examples, and documented facts as you can provide. Make sure your position is clear, then make definite recommendations for action.

A little history:
Socrates (469-399 B.C.) The first philosopher; he urged people to recognize what was real, true, and good, and to have intellectual curiosity. Questioned people about what matters most – courage, love, reverence, moderation, and the state of their souls generally (with the idea that souls could be improved by this type of reasoning). Socrates’ famous quote: “The unexamined life is not worth living for a human being.”

The Socratic Method: Attempt to solve problems, to work together to discover truth through critical thinking.

Plato (424-347 B.C.) Socrates’ student, was 25 when Socrates was executed. Assumed Socrates’ ideas and wrote many dialogues. See famous parable, Plato’s Cave.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) Plato’s student, considered most influential ancient thinker, especially in political theory. Urged justice, equality, fairness and a life consisting of wise and noble actions.

Essential Greek Triad:
Logos – the argument itself.
Ethos – disposition of the writer or speaker to present themselves well showing credibility, fairness, ethics.
Pathos – empathy with the audience, appeal to emotions.

*Pathos also called the Rogerian Approach – “we must see the expressed idea and attitude from the other person’s point of view, to sense how it feels to him, to achieve his frame of reference in regard the thing he is talking about.” It is through empathy that we can most successfully understand another’s position and in this way, we can win acceptance and reach a logical conclusion (Carl Rogers, 1950’s psychotherapist and communications theorist).

Dialectical Approach: more often than not, most issues worth arguing are complex, with evidence sometimes contradictory or ambiguous. You must be flexible or capable of thinking dialectically: which is the process of examining an issue by looking at it from opposing points of view, and to systematically weigh contradictory ideas with a view to resolution of their contradictions. This interweaving of premises and counterarguments leads us to a new, stronger position on the issue.

When you write an academic essay, you make an argument: you propose a thesis and offer some reasoning, using evidence, that suggests why the thesis is true.

ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING

1. Non-hostile, persuasive, rational discourse.
2. Analytical (5 senses, 5 w’s, evaluation vs. blind acceptance.
3. Fair, ethical, open exchange of ideas.
4. Credibility/knowledge of subject.
5. Specific evidence (documented sources, facts, statistics, expert opinion, examples, quotes
6. Build common ground.
7. *Anticipate objections so that you can COUNTER opponent’s argument.

How to Counter-Argue
Counter Argument has two stages: The turn against and the turn back.

1. You turn against your argument to challenge it and then you turn back to re-affirm it. Imagine a skeptical reader, or cite an actual source who might resist your argument by pointing out other alternatives or disadvantages or practical drawbacks to what you propose.

You introduce this turn against with a phrase like “many people might disagree with my claim that guns should be outlawed…” or “one might object that guns should be outlawed”… or “it might seem that guns aren’t the problem, it’s people who are”… or “I understand that the Constitution allows us to bear firearms”…or “while I recognize that…

2. Then you turn back: “many people might disagree with my claim that guns should be outlawed, BUTthe statistics show we would have less crime without them…” OR “one might object that guns should be outlawed, YET it’s important to examine the consequences to children who might find their parents’ guns in the house”…or “I understand that the Constitution allows us to bear firearms, HOWEVER, our society today is much different now”…

Addressing Counterarguments: in a dialectical approach to argument, the writer must pay careful attention to opposing views, acknowledging within your paper important counterarguments and thus those members of your audience who might hold them.
By anticipating your opponent’s reasoning, you can pre-empt objections, confront difficulties, and often disarm the opposition. Imagining other points of views occurs in most essays.

The “while I recognize that…” approach can be very effective. You demonstrate knowledge of the subject. You show tactfully acknowledge the opposition’s viewpoint. You appear more reasonable and fair, broad-minded, aware of complexity and so ultimately you are seen as more intelligent, reliable, and thus credible. And when you concede a point to the other side, you move closer to a middle ground, opening a line of communication and thus increasing your chances of persuading your audience to adopt your point of view.

You may even discover weaknesses and contradictions in your own thinking as you sort thru the reasoning of your opponents. It is not easy to abandon cherished beliefs (worldviews), but clear thinkers often must.
Eudaimonia (a Greek word commonly translated as happiness or welfare but actually means human flourishing – to reach one’s fullest potential in life).

Aristotle considered virtue (practical and moral wisdom, self-control, courage, justice) to be of utmost importance to attaining eudaimonia. He believed that true happiness meant “doing well and living well” and one must possess wisdom and ethics in order to truly be contented. Aristotle further argues that man attains eudaimonia through rational action and the exercise of logos, ethos, and pathos.

Happiness is an internal state of being, but Aristotle did acknowledge that external goods such as health, wealth, and beauty were also important. Thus, Aristotle urged the practice of three activities: a life of pleasure, a life of political activity, and a philosophical life.

However, other philosophers argued that the external goods were not necessary and that “doing well and living well” means doing anything well (carpentry, business activities, nursing, music, art, etc.) AND also practicing a life of good will towards others (pathos).

So, my exam question to you is, what do you think is necessary for attaining Eudaimonia?
For example, you might argue that pathos (or logos or ethos or external goods or family or love or courage or justice or education or charity or being involved in the community or public service or other types of work or whatever) is most important to living well. Try to stay away from religious viewpoints.

The structure of your argument should be as follows:

1. Create an informal outline where you will establish a thesis and topic sentences (main
point) of each paragraph you plan to write.
2. Establish a thesis and create an interesting and compelling introduction.
3. Define and describe your thesis in sufficient detail in the next few paragraphs, using at
least one good example.
4.*Establish common ground, use counterarguments, and enlist logos, ethos, and pathos to
support your opinion. Go back and look at the notes in order to do this.
5. Conclude the essay in a meaningful fashion.

Some phrases to help you address “objections” to your argument:

The turn against your argument:
Some people may disagree with my claim that …
Many people are likely to object that …
Some readers might challenge my view that …
I understand that …or While I realize that not everyone will agree with me …

The turn back:
But
Yet
However

Do not use the Internet or library or anywhere else to find information to support your opinion – this is an argumentative opinion essay where you will state your opinion and support your opinion is a structured manner using counterarguments (and logos, ethos, and pathos, of course). Again, do not locate and possibly plagiarize any articles or essays you may find on the subject.

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